Fertility and Sterility
Volume 92, Issue 4 , Pages 1171-1186 , October 2009

Cardiovascular risk in menopausal women and prevalent related co-morbid conditions: facing the post-Women's Health Initiative era

  • Faustino R. Pérez-López, M.D., Ph.D.

      Affiliations

    • Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Zaragoza Faculty of Medicine, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint requests: Faustino R. Pérez-López, M.D., Ph.D., University of Zaragoza Faculty of Medicine, Domingo Miral s/n, Zaragoza 50009, Spain (FAX: 34-976-76-1734).
    • ,
  • Peter Chedraui, M.D., M.Sc.

      Affiliations

    • Institute of Biomedicine, Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador
    • ,
  • Juan J. Gilbert, M.D.

      Affiliations

    • Institute of Biomedicine, Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador
    • ,
  • Gonzalo Pérez-Roncero, R.N.

      Affiliations

    • Instituto Ginecológico de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

Received 5 January 2009 ,Revised 6 February 2009 ,Accepted 12 February 2009.

References 

  1. Naftolin F, Taylor HS, Karas R, Brinton E, Newman I, Clarkson TB, et al. Women's Health Initiative. The Women's Health Initiative could not have detected cardioprotective effects of starting hormone therapy during the menopausal transition. Fertil Steril. 2004;81:1498–1501
  2. Anderson RN, Kochanek KD, Murphy SL. Report of final mortality statistics, 1995. Monthly vital statistics report, Vol. 45, No. 11, Suppl 2. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 1997;22–23
  3. Stevenson JC. HRT and the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Maturitas. 2007;57:31–34
  4. International Clinical Epidemiology Network. Body mass index and cardiovascular disease risk factors in seven Asian and five Latin American centers: data from the International Clinical Epidemiology Network (INCLEN). Obes Res. 1996;4:221–228
  5. Liu PY, Death AK, Handelsman DJ. Androgens and cardiovascular disease. Endocrinol Rev. 2003;24:313–340
  6. Pearls T. Why do women outlive men? Available at: http://sonibyte.com/audio/7528.mp3Last accessed on August 11, 2008
  7. The Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principles results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–333
  8. Beral V. Million Women Study Collaborators. Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet. 2003;362:419–427
  9. Lobo RA. Metabolic syndrome after menopause and the role of hormones. Maturitas. 2008;60:10–18
  10. Turgeon JL, Carr MC, Maki PM, Mendelsohn ME, Wise PM. Complex actions of sex steroids in adipose tissue, the cardiovascular system, and brain: insights from basic science and clinical studies. Endocrinol Rev. 2006;27:575–605
  11. Subah Packer C. Estrogen protection, oxidized LDL, endothelial dysfunction and vasorelaxation in cardiovascular disease: new insights into a complex issue. Cardiovasc Res. 2007;73:6–7
  12. Fadini GP, de Kreutzenberg S, Albiero M, Coracina A, Pagnin E, Baesso I, et al. Gender differences in endothelial progenitor cells and cardiovascular risk profile: the role of female estrogens. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:997–1004
  13. Christian RC, Liu PY, Harrington S, Ruan M, Miller VM, Fitzpatrick LA. Intimal estrogen receptor (ER) beta, but not ER alpha expression, is correlated with coronary calcification and atherosclerosis in pre- and postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:2713–2720
  14. Haas E, Meyer MR, Schurr U, Bhattacharya I, Minotti R, Nguyen HH, et al. Differential effects of 17beta-estradiol on function and expression of estrogen receptor alpha, estrogen receptor beta, and GPR30 in arteries and veins of patients with atherosclerosis. Hypertension. 2007;49:1358–1363
  15. Kublickiene K, Svedas E, Landgren BM, Crisby M, Nahar N, Nisell H, et al. Small artery endothelial dysfunction in postmenopausal women: in vitro function, morphology, and modification by estrogen and selective estrogen receptor modulators. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:6113–6122
  16. Arnal JF, Douin-Echinard V, Brouchet L, Tremollières F, Laurell H, Lenfant F, et al. Understanding the oestrogen action in experimental and clinical atherosclerosis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2006;20:539–548
  17. Barton M, Cremer J, Mügge A. 17Beta-estradiol acutely improves endothelium-dependent relaxation to bradykinin in isolated human coronary arteries. Eur J Pharmacol. 1998;362:73–76
  18. Lewis DA, Avsar M, Labreche P, Bracamonte M, Jayachandran M, Miller VM. Treatment with raloxifene and 17beta-estradiol differentially modulates nitric oxide and prostanoids in venous endothelium and platelets of ovariectomized pigs. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2006;48:231–238
  19. Ling S, Zhou L, Li H, Dai A, Liu JP, Komesaroff PA, et al. Effects of 17beta-estradiol on growth and apoptosis in human vascular endothelial cells: influence of mechanical strain and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Steroids. 2006;71:799–808
  20. Mori M, Tsukahara F, Yoshioka T, Irie K, Ohta H. Suppression by 17beta-estradiol of monocyte adhesion to vascular endothelial cells is mediated by estrogen receptors. Life Sci. 2004;75:599–609
  21. Sumino H, Ichikawa S, Ohyama Y, Takahashi T, Saito Y, Nakamura T, et al. Effect of transdermal hormone replacement therapy on the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 concentrations and other vascular inflammatory markers and on endothelial function in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:148–153
  22. Stumpf C, John S, Jukic J, Yilmaz A, Raaz D, Schmieder RE, et al. Enhanced levels of platelet P-selectin and circulating cytokines in young patients with mild arterial hypertension. J Hypertens. 2005;23:995–1000
  23. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Rifai N, Blake GJ, Gaziano JM, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein and the risk of developing hypertension. JAMA. 2003;290:2945–2951
  24. Piché ME, Lemieux S, Weisnagel SJ, Corneau L, Nadeau A, Bergeron J. Relation of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and fibrinogen to abdominal adipose tissue, blood pressure, and cholesterol and triglyceride levels in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:92–97
  25. Piconi S, Trabattoni D, Luraghi C, Perilli E, Borelli M, Pacei M, et al. Treatment of periodontal disease results in improvements in endothelial dysfunction and reduction of the carotid intima–media thickness. FASEB J. 2009;23:1196–1204
  26. Burke AP, Farb A, Malcom G, Virmani R. Effect of menopause on plaque morphologic characteristics in coronary atherosclerosis. Am Heart J. 2001;141:S58–S62
  27. Akçay YD, Sagin FG, Sendağ F, Oztekin K, Sozmen EY. Effects of estrogen-only therapy on LDL oxidation in women with hysterectomy: does paraoxonase genotype play a role?. Maturitas. 2006;53:325–332
  28. Krasinski K, Spyridopoulos I, Asahara T, van der Zee R, Isner JM, Losordo DW. Estradiol accelerates functional endothelial recovery after arterial injury. Circulation. 1997;95:1768–1772
  29. Duckles SP, Krause DN, Stirone C, Procaccio V. Estrogen and mitochondria: a new paradigm for vascular protection?. Mol Interv. 2006;6:26–35
  30. Simoncini T, Mannella P, Fornari L, Caruso A, Willis MY, Garibaldi S, et al. Differential signal transduction of progesterone and medroxyprogesterone acetate in human endothelial cells. Endocrinology. 2004;145:5745–5756
  31. Jeanes HL, Wanikiat P, Sharif I, Gray GA. Medroxyprogesterone acetate inhibits the cardioprotective effect of estrogen in experimental ischemia-reperfusion injury. Menopause. 2006;13:80–86
  32. Pérez-López FR. Clinical experiences with drospirenone: from reproductive to postmenopausal years. Maturitas. 2008;60:78–91
  33. Nathan L, Shi W, Dinh H, Mukherjee TK, Wang X, Lusis AJ, et al. Testosterone inhibits early atherogenesis by conversion to estradiol: critical role of aromatase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98:3589–3593
  34. Davison SL, Bell R, Donath S, Montalto JG, Davis SR. Androgen levels in adult females: changes with age, menopause, and oophorectomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90:3847–3853
  35. Bell RJ, Davison SL, Papalia MA, McKenzie DP, Davis SR. Endogenous androgen levels and cardiovascular risk profile in women across the adult life span. Menopause. 2007;14:630–638
  36. Maturana MA, Breda V, Lhullier F, Spritzer PM. Relationship between endogenous testosterone and cardiovascular risk in early postmenopausal women. Metabolism. 2008;57:961–965
  37. Lambrinoudaki I, Christodoulakos G, Rizos D, Economou E, Argeitis J, Vlachou S, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and risk factors for atherosclerosis in healthy Greek postmenopausal women. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154:907–916
  38. Barrett-Connor EL, Goodman-Gruen D. Prospective study of endogenous sex hormones and fatal cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women. Br Med J. 1995;311:1193–1196
  39. Goodman-Gruen D, Barrett-Connor E. A prospective study of sex hormone-binding globulin and fatal cardiovascular disease in Rancho Bernardo men and women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:2999–3003
  40. Bernini GP, Sgro M, Moretti A, Argenio GF, Barlascini CO, Cristofani R, et al. Endogenous androgens and carotid intimal–medial thickness in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:2008–2012
  41. Golden SH, Maguire A, Ding J, Crouse JR, Cauley JA, Zacur H, et al. Endogenous postmenopausal hormones and carotid atherosclerosis: a case-control study of the atherosclerosis risk in communities cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155:437–445
  42. Debing E, Peeters E, Duquet W, Poppe K, Velkeniers B, Van den Brande P. Endogenous sex hormone levels in postmenopausal women undergoing carotid artery endarterectomy. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;156:687–693
  43. Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy. The Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1701–1712
  44. Hsia J, Langer RD, Manson JE, Kuller L, Johnson KC, Hendrix SL, et al. Women's Health Initiative Investigators Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:357–365
  45. Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE, Wu L, Barad D, Barnabei VM, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA. 2007;297:1465–1477
  46. Allison MA, Manson JE, Langer RD, Carr JJ, Rossouw JE, Pettinger MB, et al. Women's Health Initiative and Women's Health Initiative Coronary Artery Calcium Study Investigators Oophorectomy, hormone therapy, and subclinical coronary artery disease in women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative coronary artery calcium study. Menopause. 2008;15:639–647
  47. Vickers MR, MacLennan AH, Lawton B, Ford D, Martin J, Meredith SK, et al. WISDOM group. Main morbidities recorded in the women's international study of long duration oestrogen after menopause (WISDOM): a randomised controlled trial of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. BMJ. 2007;335:239
  48. Tannen RL, Weiner MG, Xie D, Barnhart K. Estrogen affects post-menopausal women differently than estrogen plus progestin replacement therapy. Hum Reprod. 2007;22:1769–1777
  49. Howard BV, Kuller L, Langer R, Manson JE, Allen C, Assaf A, et al. Women's Health Initiative. Risk of cardiovascular disease by hysterectomy status, with and without oophorectomy: the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study. Circulation. 2005;111:1462–1470
  50. Kanaya AM, Herrington D, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Grady D, Bittner V, et al. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. Glycemic effects of postmenopausal hormone therapy: the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:1–9
  51. Kernohan AF, Sattar N, Hilditch T, Cleland SJ, Small M, Lumsden MA, et al. Effects of low-dose continuous combined hormone replacement therapy on glucose homeostasis and markers of cardiovascular risk in women with type 2 diabetes. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2007;66:27–34
  52. Wu O. Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and venous thromboembolism. Gend Med. 2005;2:S18–S27
  53. Canonico M, Oger E, Plu-Bureau G, Conard J, Meyer G, Lévesque H, et al. Estrogen and Thromboembolism Risk (ESTHER) Study Group. Hormone therapy and venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women: impact of the route of estrogen administration and progestogens: the ESTHER study. Circulation. 2007;115:840–845
  54. Canonico M, Plu-Bureau G, Lowe GDO, Scarabin PY. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of venous thromboembolism in postmenopausal women: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2008;336:1227–1231
  55. Hemelaar M, van der Mooren MJ, Rad M, Kluft C, Kenemans P. Effects of non-oral postmenopausal hormone therapy on markers of cardiovascular risk: a systematic review. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:642–672
  56. Salpeter SR, Walsh JM, Ormiston TM, Greyber E, Buckley NS, Salpeter EE. Meta-analysis: effect of hormone-replacement therapy on components of the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal women. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2006;8:538–554
  57. Sare GM, Gray LJ, Bath PMW. Association between hormone replacement therapy and subsequent arterial and venous vascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2031–2041
  58. Grodstein F, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Rexrode K. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and stroke: role of time since menopause and age at initiation of hormone therapy. Arch Intern Med. 2008;28:168:861–6
  59. Marrugat J, Solanas P, D'Agostino R, Sullivan L, Ordovás J, Cordón F, et al. Coronary risk estimation in Spain using a calibrated Framingham function. Rev Esp Cardiol. 2003;56:253–261
  60. Izumi Y, Matsumoto K, Ozawa Y, Kasamaki Y, Shinndo A, Ohta M, et al. Effect of age at menopause on blood pressure in postmenopausal women. Am J Hypertens. 2007;20:1045–1050
  61. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality. Lancet. 2002;360:1903–1913
  62. Khatibi A, Agardh CD, Nyberg P, Lidfeldt J, Samsioe G. Blood pressure in middle-aged women: are androgens involved? A population-based study of Swedish women: the Women's Health in the Lund Area study. J Hypertens. 2007;25:2044–2050
  63. Mirza FS, Ong P, Collins P, Okamura K, Gerhard-Herman M, Williams GH, et al. Effects of estradiol and the angiotensin II receptor blocker irbesartan on vascular function in postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2008;15:44–50
  64. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560–2572
  65. Hsia J, Margolis KL, Eaton CB, Wenger NK, Allison M, Wu L, et al. Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Prehypertension and cardiovascular disease risk in the Women's Health Initiative. Circulation. 2007;115:855–860
  66. Gerber LM, Sievert LL, Warren K, Pickering TG, Schwartz JE. Hot flashes are associated with increased ambulatory systolic blood pressure. Menopause. 2007;14:308–315
  67. Gast GC, Grobbee DE, Pop VJ, Keyzer JJ, Wijnands-van Gent CJ, Samsioe GN, et al. Menopausal complaints are associated with cardiovascular risk factors. Hypertension. 2008;51:1492–1498
  68. Preston RA, Norris PM, Alonso AB, Ni P, Hanes V, Karara AH. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the effects of drospirenone–estradiol on blood pressure and potassium balance in hypertensive postmenopausal women receiving hydrochlorothiazide. Menopause. 2007;14:408–414
  69. Karelis AD, Pasternyk SM, Messier L, St-Pierre DH, Lavoie JM, Garrel D, et al. Relationship between insulin sensitivity and the triglyceride–HDL-C ratio in overweight and obese postmenopausal women: a MONET study. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007;32:1089–1096
  70. Graff-Iversen S, Thelle DS, Hammar N. Serum lipids, blood pressure and body weight around the age of the menopause. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008;15:83–88
  71. Richter V, Rassoul F, Hentschel B, Kothe K, Krobara M, Unger R, et al. Age-dependence of lipid parameters in the general population and vegetarians. Z Gerontol Geriatr. 2004;37:207–213
  72. Knauff EA, Westerveld HE, Goverde AJ, Eijkemans MJ, Valkenburg O, van Santbrink EJ, et al. Lipid profile of women with premature ovarian failure. Menopause. 2008;15:919–923
  73. National Institutes of Health. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. NIH Publication No. 98-4083. Bethesda: NIH; September 1998;
  74. Welty FK, Stuart E, O'Meara M, Huddleston J. Effect of addition of exercise to therapeutic lifestyle changes diet in enabling women and men with coronary heart disease to reach Adult Treatment Panel III low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goal without lowering high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Cardiol. 2002;89:1201–1204
  75. Slentz CA, Houmard JA, Johnson JL, Bateman LA, Tanner CJ, McCartney JS, et al. Inactivity, exercise training and detraining, and plasma lipoproteins. STRRIDE: a randomized, controlled study of exercise intensity and amount. J Appl Physiol. 2007;103:432–442
  76. Ferrannini E. Physiological and metabolic consequences of obesity. Metabolism. 1995;44:15–17
  77. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Tanomsup S, Wangai P, Razak F, et al. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. Lancet. 2005;366:1640–1649
  78. Peverill RE, Teede HJ, Malan E, Kotsopoulos D, Smolich JJ, McGrath BP. Relationship of waist and hip circumference with coagulation and fibrinolysis in postmenopausal women. Clin Sci. 2007;113:383–391
  79. Bogers RP, Bemelmans WJ, Hoogenveen RT, Boshuizen HC, Woodward M, Knekt P, et al. BMI-CHD Collaboration Investigators Association of overweight with increased risk of coronary heart disease partly independent of blood pressure and cholesterol levels: a meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies including more than 300 000 persons. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1720–1728
  80. Deibert P, König D, Vitolins MZ, Landmann U, Frey I, Zahradnik HP, et al. Effect of a weight loss intervention on anthropometric measures and metabolic risk factors in pre- versus postmenopausal women. Nutr J. 2007;6:31
  81. Schmitz KH, Hannan PJ, Stovitz SD, Bryan CJ, Warren M, Jensen MD. Strength training and adiposity in premenopausal women: strong, healthy, and empowered study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:566–572
  82. Church TS, Earnest CP, Skinner JS, Blair SN. Effects of different doses of physical activity on cardiorespiratory fitness among sedentary, overweight or obese postmenopausal women with elevated blood pressure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007;297:2081–2091
  83. ATP III. Final Report. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) Final Report. Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3full.pdf. Last accessed January 2, 2009.
  84. International Diabetes Federation. The IDF consensus worldwide definition of the metabolic syndrome. Brussels: IDF, 2005. Available at: http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/metac_syndrome_def.pdf. Last accessed on September 24, 2008.
  85. Dørum A, Tonstad S, Liavaag AH, Michelsen TM, Hildrum B, Dahl AA. Bilateral oophorectomy before 50 years of age is significantly associated with the metabolic syndrome and Framingham risk score: a controlled, population-based study (HUNT-2). Gynecol Oncol. 2008;109:377–383
  86. Akosah KO, McHugh VL, Barnhart SI, Schaper AM, Mathiason MA, Perlock PA, et al. Carotid ultrasound for risk clarification in young to middle-aged adults undergoing elective coronary angiography. Am J Hypertens. 2006;19:1256–1261
  87. Cabré JJ, Martin F, Costa B, Pinyol JL, Llor JL, Ortega Y, et al. Metabolic syndrome as a cardiovascular disease risk factor: patients evaluated in primary care. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:251
  88. Noto D, Barbagallo CM, Cefalù AB, Falletta A, Sapienza M, Cavera G, et al. The metabolic syndrome predicts cardiovascular events in subjects with normal fasting glucose: results of a 15 years follow-up in a Mediterranean population. Atherosclerosis. 2008;197:147–153
  89. Janssen I, Powell LH, Crawford S, Lasley B, Sutton-Tyrrell K. Menopause and the metabolic syndrome: the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1568–1575
  90. Martins D, Tareen N, Ogedegbe G, Pan D, Norris K. The relative risk of cardiovascular death among racial and ethnic minorities with metabolic syndrome: data from the NHANES-II mortality follow-up. J Natl Med Assoc. 2008;100:565–571
  91. Devaraj S, Swarbrick MM, Singh U, Adams-Huet B, Havel PJ, Jialal I. CRP and adiponectin and its oligomers in the metabolic syndrome: evaluation of new laboratory-based biomarkers. Am J Clin Pathol. 2008;129:815–822
  92. Chedraui P, Hidalgo L, Chavez D, Morocho N, Alvarado M, Huc A. Menopausal symptoms and associated risk factors among postmenopausal women screened for the metabolic syndrome. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2007;275:161–168
  93. Chedraui P, Hidalgo L, Chavez D, Morocho N, Alvarado M, Huc A. Quality of life among postmenopausal Ecuadorian women participating in a metabolic syndrome screening program. Maturitas. 2007;56:45–53
  94. Barriga J, Castelo-Branco C, Chedraui P, Hidalgo L, Veas P. Educational and organizational interventions used to improve the knowledge of metabolic syndrome among postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:444–446
  95. Yang X, Telama R, Hirvensalo M, Mattsson N, Viikari JS, Raitakari OT. The longitudinal effects of physical activity history on metabolic syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:1424–1431
  96. Frank LL, Sorensen BE, Yasui Y, Tworoger SS, Schwartz RS, Ulrich CM, et al. Effects of exercise on metabolic risk variables in overweight postmenopausal women: a randomized clinical trial. Obes Res. 2005;13:615–625
  97. Innes KE, Selfe TK, Taylor AG. Menopause, the metabolic syndrome, and mind–body therapies. Menopause. 2008;15:1005–1013
  98. Rosenson RS, Wolff DA, Huskin AL, Helenowski IB, Rademaker AW. Fenofibrate therapy ameliorates fasting and postprandial lipoproteinemia, oxidative stress, and the inflammatory response in subjects with hypertriglyceridemia and the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:1945–1951
  99. Robyn C, Delvoye P, Nokin J, Vekemans M, Badawi M, Pérez-López FR, et al. Prolactin and human reproduction. In:  Pastels JL,  Robyn C editor. Human prolactin. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1973;p. 167–188
  100. Pérez-López FR, Robyn C. Studies on human prolactin physiology. Life Sci. 1974;15:599–616
  101. Murphy PJ, Campbell SS. Sex hormones, sleep, and core body temperature in older postmenopausal women. Sleep. 2007;30:1788–1794
  102. Kravitz HM, Zhao X, Bromberger JT, Gold EB, Hall MH, Matthews KA, et al. Sleep disturbance during the menopausal transition in a multi-ethnic community sample of women. Sleep. 2008;31:979–990
  103. Troxel WM, Robles TF, Hall M, Buysse DJ. Marital quality and the marital bed: examining the covariation between relationship quality and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. 2007;11:389–404
  104. Hall MH, Muldoon MF, Jennings JR, Buysse DJ, Flory JD, Manuck SB. Self-reported sleep duration is associated with the metabolic syndrome in midlife adults. Sleep. 2008;31:635–643
  105. Cappuccio FP, Stranges S, Kandala NB, Miller MA, Taggart FM, Kumari M, et al. Gender-specific associations of short sleep duration with prevalent and incident hypertension: the Whitehall II Study. Hypertension. 2007;50:693–700
  106. Phillips B, Mannino DM. Do insomnia complaints cause hypertension or cardiovascular disease?. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3:489–494
  107. Meisinger C, Heier M, Löwel H, Schneider A, Döring A. Sleep duration and sleep complaints and risk of myocardial infarction in middle-aged men and women from the general population: the MONICA/KORA Augsburg cohort study. Sleep. 2007;30:1121–1127
  108. Suarez EC. Self-reported symptoms of sleep disturbance and inflammation, coagulation, insulin resistance and psychosocial distress: evidence for gender disparity. Brain Behav Immun. 2008;22:960–968
  109. Tasali E, Leproult R, Ehrmann DA, Van Cauter E. Slow-wave sleep and the risk of type 2 diabetes in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:1044–1049
  110. Chen JC, Brunner RL, Ren H, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Larson JC, Levine DW, et al. Sleep duration and risk of ischemic stroke in postmenopausal women. Stroke. 2008;39:3185–3192
  111. King CR, Knutson KL, Rathouz PJ, Sidney S, Liu K, Lauderdale DS. Short sleep duration and incident coronary artery calcification. JAMA. 2008;300:2859–2866
  112. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Cardiovascular morbidity in obstructive sleep apnea: oxidative stress, inflammation, and much more. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:369–375
  113. Benjamin JA, Lewis KE. Sleep-disordered breathing and cardiovascular disease. Postgrad Med J. 2008;84:15–22
  114. Winkelman JW, Shahar E, Sharief I, Gottlieb DJ. Association of restless legs syndrome and cardiovascular disease in the Sleep Heart Health Study. Neurology. 2008;70:35–42
  115. Oertel WH, Benes H, Bodenschatz R, Peglau I, Warmuth R, Happe S, et al. Efficacy of cabergoline in restless legs syndrome: a placebo-controlled study with polysomnography (CATOR). Neurology. 2006;67:1040–1046
  116. Van Cauter E, Spiegel K, Tasali E, Leproult R. Metabolic consequences of sleep and sleep loss. Sleep Med. 2008;9(Suppl 1):S23–S28
  117. Ohayon MM. Severe hot flashes are associated with chronic insomnia. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:1262–1268
  118. Tworoger SS, Yasui Y, Vitiello MV, Schwartz RS, Ulrich CM, Aiello EJ, et al. Effects of a Yarlong moderate intensity exercise and stretching intervention on sleep quality in postmenopausal women. Sleep. 2003;26:830–836
  119. Juliá Mollá MD, García-Sánchez Y, Romeu Sarrió A, Pérez-López FR. Cimicifuga racemosa treatment and health related quality of life in postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2009;25:21–26
  120. Dimpfel W, Suter A. Sleep improving effects of a single dose administration of a valerian/hops fluid extract—a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled sleep–EEG study in a parallel design using electrohypnograms. Eur J Med Res. 2008;13:200–204
  121. Kinder LS, Carnethon MR, Palaniappan LP, King AC, Fortmann SP. Depression and the metabolic syndrome in young adults: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Psychosom Med. 2004;66:316–322
  122. Räikkönen K, Matthews KA, Kuller LH. Depressive symptoms and stressful life events predict metabolic syndrome among middle-aged women: a comparison of World Health Organization, Adult Treatment Panel III, and International Diabetes Foundation definitions. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:872–877
  123. Georgiades A, Zucker N, Friedman KE, Mosunic CJ, Applegate K, Lane JD, et al. Changes in depressive symptoms and glycemic control in diabetes mellitus. Psychosom Med. 2007;69:235–241
  124. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Shumaker S, Ockene J, Talavera GA, Greenland P, Cochrane B, et al. Depression and cardiovascular sequelae in postmenopausal women. The Women's Health Initiative (WHI). Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:289–298
  125. Golden SH, Lazo M, Carnethon M, Bertoni AG, Schreiner PJ, Diez Roux AV, et al. Examining a bidirectional association between depressive symptoms and diabetes. JAMA. 2008;299:2751–2759
  126. Penninx BW, Beekman AT, Honig A, Deeg DJ, Schoevers RA, van Eijk JT, et al. Depression and cardiac mortality: results from a community-based longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:221–227
  127. Chedraui P, Pérez-López FR, Morales B, Hidalgo L. Depressive symptoms among climacteric women are related to menopausal symptom intensity and partner factors. Climacteric. In press.
  128. Adams MR, Kaplan JR, Clarkson TB, Koritnik DR. Ovariectomy, social status, and atherosclerosis in cynomolgus monkeys. Arteriosclerosis. 1985;5:192–200
  129. Walker SE, Register TC, Appt SE, Adams MR, Clarkson TB, Chen H, et al. Plasma lipid-dependent and -independent effects of dietary soy protein and social status on atherogenesis in premenopausal monkeys: implications for postmenopausal atherosclerosis burden. Menopause. 2008;15:950–957
  130. Hanke H, Hanke S, Ickrath O, Lange K, Bruck B, Muck AO, et al. Estradiol concentrations in premenopausal women with coronary heart disease. Coron Artery Dis. 1997;8:511–515
  131. Krantz DS, Olson MB, Francis JL, Phankao C, Bairey Merz CN, Sopko G, et al. Anger, hostility, and cardiac symptoms in women with suspected coronary artery disease: the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) Study. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2006;15:1214–1223
  132. Harris KF, Matthews KA, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Kuller LH. Associations between psychological traits and endothelial function in postmenopausal women. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:402–409
  133. Armon G, Shirom A, Shapira I, Melamed S. On the nature of burnout-insomnia relationships: a prospective study of employed adults. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65:5–12
  134. von Känel R, Bellingrath S, Kudielka BM. Association between burnout and circulating levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in schoolteachers. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65:51–59
  135. Gómez-Caminero A, Blumentals WA, Russo LJ, Brown RR, Castilla-Puentes R. Does panic disorder increase the risk of coronary heart disease? A cohort study of a national managed care database. Psychosom Med. 2005;67:688–691
  136. Pérez-López FR. Vitamin D metabolism and cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2009;62:248–262
  137. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:690–693
  138. Pérez-López FR. Vitamin D and its implications for musculoskeletal health in women: an update. Maturitas. 2007;58:117–137
  139. Rejnmark L, Vestergaard P, Heickendorff L, Mosekilde L. Plasma 1,25(OH)2D levels decrease in postmenopausal women with hypovitaminosis D. Eur J Endocrinol. 2008;158:571–576
  140. Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:820–825
  141. Sandhu MS, Gibson JM, Heald AH, Dunger DB, Wareham NJ. Association between insulin-like growth factor-I: insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1 ratio and metabolic and anthropometric factors in men and women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13:166–170
  142. Forman JP, Giovannucci E, Holmes MD, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Tworoger SS, Willett WC, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension. 2007;49:1063–1069
  143. Hoogendijk WJ, Lips P, Dik MG, Deeg DJ, Beekman AT, Penninx BW. Depression is associated with decreased 25-hydroxyvitamin D and increased parathyroid hormone levels in older adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008;65:508–512
  144. Melamed ML, Michos ED, Post W, Astor B. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1629–1637
  145. Melamed ML, Muntner P, Michos ED, Uribarri J, Weber C, Sharma J, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Results from NHANES 2001 to 2004. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1179–1185
  146. Caan B, Neuhouser M, Aragaki A, Lewis CB, Jackson R, LeBoff MS, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of postmenopausal weight gain. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:893–902
  147. De Boer IH, Tinker LF, Connelly S, Curb JD, Howard BV, Kestenbaum B, et al. Women's Health Initiative Investigators Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of incident diabetes in the Women's Health Initiative. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:701–707
  148. Gerosa M, De Angelis V, Riboldi P, Meroni PL. Rheumatoid arthritis: a female challenge. Women's Health (Lond Engl). 2008;4:195–201
  149. Kanik KS, Wilder RL. Hormonal alterations in rheumatoid arthritis, including the effects of pregnancy. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2000;26:805–823
  150. Cutolo M, Seriolo B, Villaggio B, Pizzorni C, Craviotto C, Sulli A. Androgens and estrogens modulate the immune and inflammatory responses in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002;966:131–142
  151. Snow MH, Mikuls TR. Rheumatoid arthritis and cardiovascular disease: the role of systemic inflammation and evolving strategies of prevention. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2005;17:234–241
  152. Rocca WA, Grossardt BR, de Andrade M, Malkasian GD, Melton LJ. Survival patterns after oophorectomy in premenopausal women: a population-based cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:821–828
  153. Rivera CM, Grossardt BR, Rhodes DJ, Brown RD, Roger VL, Melton LJ, et al. Increased cardiovascular mortality after early bilateral oophorectomy. Menopause. 2009;16:15–23
  154. Carr MC. The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:2404–2411
  155. King DE, Mainous AG, Geesey ME. Turning back the clock: adopting a healthy lifestyle in middle age. Am J Med. 2007;120:598–603
  156. De Backer G, Ambrosioni E, Borch-Johnsen K, Brotons C, Cifkova R, Dallongeville J, et al. Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 8 societies and by invited experts). European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:1601–1610
  157. Mosca L, Banka CL, Benjamin EJ, Berra K, Bushnell C, Dolor RJ, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007 update. Circulation. 2007;115:1481–1501
  158. Carels RA, Darby LA, Cacciapaglia HM, Douglass OM. Reducing cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women through a lifestyle change intervention. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2004;13:412–426

 Edward E. Wallach, M.D.Associate Editor

 F.R.P.-L. has nothing to disclose. P.C. has nothing to disclose. J.J.G. has nothing to disclose. G.P.-R. has nothing to disclose.

 Partially supported by the B/017543/08 AECID (“Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo”) grant from the Spanish “Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y Cooperación” to the University of Zaragoza (Spain) and the Catholic University of Santiago de Guayaquil (Ecuador).

PII: S0015-0282(09)01353-3

doi: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.06.032

Fertility and Sterility
Volume 92, Issue 4 , Pages 1171-1186 , October 2009

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution